The two sugar phosphate DNA strands side-by-side, next to their complementary bases: the purines Adenine (yellow) and Guanine (purple) pair with the pyrimidines Thymine (blue) and Cytosine (green)
The two antiparallel strands now attached together by hydrogen bonds
The complete DNA model twisted into a helical shape
Questions (part 1):
1. DNA has two sugar-phosphate antiparallel strands that form a double helix shape. Between these strands are the nucleotides: Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, and Guanine, which pair together by hydrogen bonds. The complementary base pairs are: Adenine with Thymine, and Cytosine with Guanine.
2. This activity helps us model the DNA structure by showing us how the strands are connected, using the white pipe cleaners as its hydrogen bonds, and what DNA actually looks like. The beads help to demonstrate the different nucleotides and their bases (purine or pyrimidine) and the overall structure gives us a basis on how everything within this nucleic acid comes together. Some possible changes for accuracy include measuring out the distances between the sugars, phosphates, and nucleotides within the DNA, as there is no specific measurement in our model.
The DNA replication process using the three enzymes: helicase (the fuzzy peach), polymerase (the bunnies), and the ligase (the heart)
The product of DNA replication: two new daughter strands, each containing one parent strand and one new stand
Questions (part 2):
1. DNA replication occurs during cell division in order to produce more of itself.
2. There are three main steps to DNA replication: unwinding (where the hydrogen bonds get unzipped between the nucleotide pairs), complementary base pairing (where the nucleotides make their way to their pairs on each unzipped strand), and joining (where the second sugar-phosphate backbone gets formed). With the help of the helicase, polymerase, and ligase enzymes, this process ultimately forms a new, complete set of DNA.
Although, when the nucleotides are being put into place (by the polymerase enzyme), they can only follow the 3′ to 5′ pattern. Because the two strands are antiparallel, there end up being a “leading” strand and a “lagging” strand and therefor this results in two separate ways of adding the nucleotides. The leading strand simply adds them by following the helicase, while the lagging strand has to continuously go back and forth as new DNA is made from the parent, which results in many “segments” that are later attached together by the ligase enzyme.
3. The way we modelled this process was with the help of “enzyme candies”: the fuzzy peach was the helicase, the bunnies were the polymerase, and the heart was the ligase. We slowly unzipped a part of the helix and added new strands onto the parent ones, resulting in two separate strands. This activity was well suited for showing this process in the way that we got a visual on how replication really happens when our cells divide and what each enzyme (candy) is used for. It was inaccurate in that the leading and lagging strand were not shown accurately; we could not see the differences, nor how the nucleotides really got there with the help of the enzyme.
The RNA strand in the process of transcribing one strand from each set of DNA
The RNA now transcribed, and the DNA back in its original form
Our mRNA strand, transcribed
The first stage of translation: initiation
The second stage of translation: elongation
Elongation (continued, gradually adding more anticodons)
Elongation (continued until STOP codon is reached)
The final stage of translation: termination (once stop codon is reached, a unique amino acid sequence will be formed) Ours came from corn!
Questions (part 3):
1. mRNA is different from DNA in the way that it only has one strand, it has a ribose rather than a deoxyribose, and the nucleotide Adenine pairs with Uracil instead of Thymine.
2. As soon as the DNA helix unwinds, hydrogen bonds are formed between the nucleotides of RNA and those of DNA (note: Uracil pairs with Adenine). Then, covalent bonds are formed by the use of the RNA polymerase enzyme, resulting in a backbone. After the information is copied from DNA onto the RNA strand, it is released and the DNA comes together again to form its original helical shape.
3. Today’s activity did a good job in modelling the process of RNA transcription in the way that we were shown how easily DNA gets copied with a single strand of RNA (it’s quickly copied and put back together) and what they look like compared to each other (DNA is helical, RNA is linear, etc.). The model was inaccurate in that it wasn’t clear on how the polymerase really works in this process, what happens to the DNA strands that are waiting for the RNA to make copies, and what happens to the RNA once it has the needed information for protein synthesis.
Questions (part 4):
1. The three stages of translation are: initiation, elongation, and termination. In initiation, the transcribed mRNA gets attached to a ribosome, where the two subunits (A and P) bind together. In elongation, tRNA anticodons get attached to the subunits (sequence always starts at AUG) and causes the three letter words on RNA, codons, to start building an amino acid sequence. As more and more codons start to build up, new tRNA comes in as “empty” tRNA leaves. This process continues until the mRNA comes across a STOP codon, which begins the termination stage. Because the STOP codon does not have a matching tRNA, no new amino acids are added to the chain and the newly made polypeptide is released.
2. Today’s activity did a good job in modelling the process in the way that it clearly showed all of the stages of translation and each model cut-out was accurate; this allowed us to more thoroughly understand how everything works in order to create proteins! Although, what made it inaccurate was that we only had one ribosome reading the mRNA (instead of a few) and we couldn’t show the dissociation of the ribosomal subunits once the sequence had been complete.
Below I have created 4 instructional videos for the unit of Exponents, Measurement, Trigonometry, and Polynomials to help prepare for the math 10 midterm.
Whole genome sequencing is the most effective way of analyzing the human genome or in other words a person’s complete set of DNA, along with its genes. A genome contains a set of instructions on how to build an organism, as well as keeping it alive, developing, and
Nucleotide bases in DNA, which are listed during the process of whole genome sequencing
running. After sequencing it, we should be able to know the exact order of the DNA bases (otherwise known as nucleotides) – A, C, G, and T.
The way researchers determine your sequence, is by first collecting some of your DNA, such as a blood or saliva sample, and then decoding over 3 billion of the nucleotides in a special machine. When we decode the sequence, we get a long string of letters, which are practically written in an unknown language. For example, if we were to pretend that these letters were English words, it would be a long line of words with no punctuation or spelling, making it difficult to understand. Afterwards, when your sequence is developed, it gets compared to a reference sequence to
The machine used to analyze DNA and determine the sequence of bases
see if there are any particular differences, known as variants. Variants can help determine almost anything about you, such as your height, eye colour, where your relatives are from, what diseases you’re carrying, etc.
This form of biotechnology was first achieved in 2003, which actually isn’t that long ago! It was completed as a part of the Human Genome Project and has made the sequencing much easier and quicker throughout the years. The very first genome sequence, 12 years ago, was at the price of $2.7 billion, but now, with the help of better technology, they can be sequenced for only $10, 000, in just a few days.
But why do we sequence genomes? By getting these large amounts of data of nucleotides in a short amount of time, we are able to determine many things about a person, such as their inherited disorders, mutations, track certain diseases, or even find out how the person responds to some medications. For example, let’s say you have an increase in a
With the help of whole genome sequencing, we are able to determine whether or not a person has certain diseases, disorders, etc.
certain variant, containing a disease that may evolve in the future. With the help of whole genome sequencing, you can find out about it early on and start doing things to
prevent it or simply start taking medications. So basically, when this form of biotechnology is put into place, we’re finding out everything there is to know about what keeps you running and alive by looking at an exact copy of what is inside your genome.
The biggest advantages to getting whole genome sequencing are not only to know about the disorders, mutations, etc., but you also have the option of donating your DNA to research of genomics, which can really help to make a difference. Although, once you do know about your genome, there may be emotional consequences. These can arise if, for example, there is a disease that is non-preventable that you may be getting sometime in the future; the sequencing might provide information about your health, but it also might not. This can be quite frightening to some people, especially since usually, you never know for sure what you can obtain.
Considering that the very first sequence was completed in 2003, not too long ago, the research needs a lot of work, as it isn’t yet fully developed. Scientists and researchers are still learning about how to use the information they are finding, so the future of this incredible form of biotechnology is still looking bright, there is still much to be discovered.
Citations:
(Rest of the citations are hyperlinked directly in the article)
Building, capturing, changing things, we believe we are superior
Destroying, destroying, destroying
Out of everything we’ve made, all we’ve achieved was a big, fine mess
This mess ain’t no crystal stair
So our atavistic desire grows to keep doing –
More
We act like falling stars, breaking, shooting towards earth
When really we’re just a speck of dust that flew right off that space stone
And landed on a mountain peak,
Unseen and incomparable to the great forces above it
We are the shadows of universal darkness, covering the earth with our inventions
And though our eyes are stabbed by the flash of our own light
We still continue to take over and want
More
Rationale:
The free-verse poem “More” by Karina Makarova is a piece of literature focusing mainly on the theme of humanity vs. nature or the way humans take the environment/the world they have for granted. The inquiry question; “Why do humans do the wrong action even when they know it’s wrong” is answered and represented throughout the author’s poem, as evidenced by the verse; “Building, capturing, changing things, we believe we are superior”. Humans tend to blindly destroy the nature around them because they feel they are superior, immune to the things that are clearly much greater than themselves, and though they can see what is being destroyed; “All we’ve achieved was a big, fine mess”, they still believe they are “falling stars”, that nothing can possibly get in their way of achieving what they want, just like how stars can’t be stopped from falling, they continue until they reach their destination; “…our atavistic desire grows to keep doing”. This is also represented in the symbolic imagery, the human is carelessly holding planet earth in his hands, but shows no worry or care towards the fact that it and his hand is on fire (probably because he is who set it in flames). Karina refers her poem to the video “Man” by Steve Cutts because of the way it demonstrates their generation. The man in the short clip is transforming everything and constantly moving forward, or in other words; refuses to stop, he has the “constant desire/demand for more”.
When it came to forgiveness, I was a closed book. I felt that when someone hurt me, it was practically impossible for them to regain my trust once again, even if it was in the past and maybe long forgotten, but after seeing the video “Walking after Midnight”, I realized that forgiving isn’t to forget, it is to move forward and relieve the pain not only in myself, but in the person as well. Even though I would never be able to feel exactly the way Karen did when realizing her husband had died due to a party gone completely backwards, I can imagine how much she must have hated the man behind his death and how much strength it took to really forgive him, to work with him in order to create change in others’ mindsets.
I’ve been in the shoes of the person who did the supposedly unforgiveable and it is enough to know that when you hurt someone you never intended on hurting, you want to do anything to free yourself from the guilt, just as much as whomever you’ve hurt wants to free themselves from the despair.
The quote “Forgiveness is my gift to you, moving on is my gift to myself” really describes my perspective on what it means to pardon someone for their mistakes. I learned that when something unspeakable happens to you, it’s always going to be at the back of your mind, whether you want it there or not, so in order to overcome your constant feeling of hatred, disappointment, or anger, you must accept that life goes on, better things will eventually arise if you let go of all that’s weighing you down and open your eyes towards a continued future.
My heart is racing, nearly out of my chest. The dry, yellow grass lies dead beneath my feet and I see nothing but thick, white smoke clouding my vision, while I step further into the nightmare called a battle field. The memories I left behind play over, and over again in my head, as I watch hundreds of people die right in front of me. With lifeless bodies surrounding me, screams echoing behind my trail of thought, and no idea what’ll happen next, I run. It seems like the entire world is chasing me and there’s nothing I can do. This is my life now.
I jump up to see a pair of eyes staring up at me and I realize my face is wet, probably from all the crying.
“Was it the nightmares again?” asks Dave, and I nod.
The nightmares aren’t news to Dave. They’ve been going on for over 10 years now, each leaving me terrified, screaming, and wishing the next night they would stop.
“We’re going home tomorrow,” he starts again when I don’t say anything. I wipe my tears and wonder how much they’ve all changed since I left.
“I can’t believe we made it,” I said, “though nothing seems right anymore.”
A cold shiver strikes my body, as the thought of war pops back into my mind. Everything we went through; the pain and suffering of seeing innocent people die. How will we ever forget that and the millions of other terrible things that have happened?
“It’ll be okay,” Dave says, as if he knew what I was thinking, “go get some rest before morning. You’ll see your family soon.”
He walks back to his bed and though the room stays silent, I can tell that neither of us is prepared for the questions waiting to be asked back at home. The years that went by have changed us, turned us into completely new people. They won’t understand why we’ll be waking up stunned from the nightmares or why we’ll jump at the first sound, alarmed. They just won’t get it.
“Oh but…” I hear someone say, assuming its Dave and that he’s talking to me, “if anyone asks, tell them we’re fine.”
He was right. The most important thing is that we’re safe. Safe from the piercing sound of gunshots, tugging at our ears, safe from the constant fear of losing our lives by doing something wrong, and are now going back to the warmth of our homes and family. We have survived.
My heart is racing, nearly out of my chest. The dry, yellow grass lies dead beneath my feet and I see nothing but thick, white smoke clouding my vision, while I step further into the nightmare called a battle field. The memories I left behind play over, and over again in my head, as I watch hundreds of people die right in front of me. With lifeless bodies surrounding me, screams echoing behind my trail of thought, and no idea what’ll happen next, I run. It seems like the entire world is chasing me and there’s nothing I can do. This is my life now.